Alicante

Port city, capital of Alicante provincia, in Valencia comunidad aut�noma (�autonomous community�), southeastern Spain. It is located on Alicante Bay of the Mediterranean Sea. Founded as Akra Leuke (�White Summit�) by Phocaean Greeks (from the west coast of Asia Minor) in 325 BC, the city was captured in 201 BC by the Romans, who called it Lucentum. Under Moorish domination, which lasted from

Argentina, Galtieri and the Falklands War

Videla was succeeded in March 1981 by General Roberto Viola, who, with the Dirty War near its end, was quite unable to control his military allies. In December he was shouldered aside by Lieutenant General Leopoldo Galtieri. Galtieri faced a slumping economy and increased civil opposition to military rule. His trump card was that he had promised his navy ally, Vice Admiral

Viseu

Town, capital, and concelho (township), Viseu distrito (�district�), northern Portugal, southeast of Porto. The town's notable landmarks include the Romanesque and Gothic cathedral (12th and 16th centuries) and the Gr�o-Vasco Museum, which is dedicated to the works of a 16th-century school of painting headquartered in Viseu. Nearby are the ancient city of Vaca and the Cava de Viriato,

Argentina, The presidency of Carlos Menem

With the economy crumbling around him, Alfons�n resigned five months early, and Menem officially took over in July. Menem's moderate Peronist program called for a free-market economy with lower tariffs, based on a wage-price pact between labour, business, and government. To help carry out his economic scheme, Menem unexpectedly enlisted the aid of former top-level

Maddalena Island

Italian �Isola Maddalena, � island, Sassari provincia, Italy. It lies in the Tyrrhenian Sea (of the Mediterranean) off the northeast coast of Sardinia. It has an area of 8 square miles (20 square km) and is the principal island of the Maddalena Archipelago, which includes the islands of Maddalena, Caprera, Santo Stefano, Spargi, Budelli, Santa Maria, and Razzoli. Its port, La Maddalena, is the administrative

Nervous System, Human, Reciprocal innervation

Any cold, hot, or noxious stimulus striking the skin of the foot contracts the flexor muscle of that limb, relaxes the extensor muscles of the same limb, and extends the opposite limb. The purpose of these movements is to remove one limb from harm while shifting weight to the opposite limb. That is the first and immediate response, but a slower and longer-lasting reflex

Argentina, The presidency of Carlos Menem

Argentina's varied geography can be grouped into four major regions: the Andes, the North, the Pampas, and Patagonia. The Andean region extends some 2,300 miles (3,700 km) along the western edge of the country from Bolivia to southern Patagonia, forming most of the natural boundary with Chile. It is commonly subdivided into two parts: the Northwest and the Patagonian Andes, the latter

Korea Warm Current, East

Surface oceanic current, the northward-flowing branch of the Tsushima Current in the Sea of Japan. After flowing along the coast of Korea, the East Korea Warm Current turns eastward and divides into the Tsugaru Warm Current and the Soya Warm Current. The Tsugaru Warm Current enters the Pacific Ocean through the Tsugaru Strait, and the Soya Current enters the Sea of Okhotsk

Argentina, The Gran Chaco

The western sector of the North region, the Gran Chaco, extends beyond the international border at the Pilcomayo River into Paraguay, where it is called the Chaco Boreal (�Northern Chaco�) by Argentines. The Argentine sector between the Pilcomayo River and the Bermejo River is known as the Chaco Central. Argentines have named the area southward to latitude 30� S, where the

Argentina, Mesopotamia

East of the Gran Chaco, in a narrow depression 60 to 180 miles (100 to 300 km) wide, lies Mesopotamia, which is bordered to the north by the highlands of southern Brazil. The narrow lowland stretches for 1,000 miles (1,600 km) southward, finally merging with the Pampas south of the R�o de la Plata. Its designation as Mesopotamia (Greek: �Between the Rivers�) reflects the fact that its western and eastern

Boston, Continuous park system

When the Back Bay was nearing completion during the 1880s, the American landscape architect Frederick Law Olmsted (1822 - 1903) developed an imaginative and large-scale design for the city's parks. It linked the Common, Public Garden, and Commonwealth Avenue with Franklin Park in West Roxbury by way of an open park known as the Fenway, which followed the Muddy River off to Brookline

Yogyakarta

Most of the western half of the special district comprises coastal plains, as much as 15 miles (24 km) wide, consisting of lava and ash soils that are

Argentina, The Pampas

Pampa is a Quechua Indian term meaning �flat surface.� As such it is widely used in southeastern South America from Uruguay, where grass-covered plains commence south of the Brazilian Highlands, to Argentina. In Argentina the Pampas broaden out west of the R�o de la Plata to meet the Andean forelands, blending imperceptibly to the north with the Chaco Austral and southern

Argentina, Patagonia

This region consists of an Andean zone (also called Western Patagonia) and the main Patagonian plateau south of the Pampas, which extends to the tip of South America. The surface of Patagonia descends east of the Andes in a series of broad, flat steps extending to the Atlantic coast. Evidently, the region's gigantic landforms and coastal terraces were created by the

France, History Of, Social classes

The collapse of Roman imperial power and the influx of Germans did not destroy the old Roman senatorial and landed aristocracy; the 6th-century kings called on its members to serve in the administration. A sort of military aristocracy had existed among the Germans: at the time of their settlement within the empire, its members were given tax revenues and lands confiscated

Argentina, Drainage

The largest river basin in the area is that of the R�o de la Plata (often called the River Plate). It drains an area of some 1.6 million square miles (4.1 million square km), which includes northern Argentina, the whole of Paraguay, eastern Bolivia, most of Uruguay, and a large part of Brazil. The river is actually an estuary formed by the confluence of the Paran� and Uruguay rivers;

Biot-savart Law

An electric current flowing in a conductor, or a moving electric charge, produces a magnetic field, or a region in the space around the conductor in which magnetic

Argentina, Soils

Soil types in Argentina range from the light-coloured saline formations of the high puna in the Northwest to the dark, humus-rich type found in the Pampas. Golden-brown loess soils of the Gran Chaco are sometimes lighter where salinity is excessive but turn darker toward the east in the Mesopotamian border zone. These give way to soils ranging from rust to deep red

Astip�laia

Island, westernmost of the Greek Dodecanese Islands, Aegean Sea, between Amorg�s and Cos (Kos). With an area of 37 square miles (97 square km), it comprises two mountain masses linked by a narrow isthmus that provided shelter for the ancient Roman fleet. The western hills rise to about 1,500 feet (450 m) and the eastern hills to about 1,200 feet (365 m). The coast is much indented, with high cliffs rising

Argentina, Climate

Argentina lies almost entirely within the temperate zone of the Southern Hemisphere, unlike the rest of the continent to the north, which lies within the tropics. Tropical air masses only occasionally invade the provinces of Formosa and Misiones in the extreme north. The southern extremes of Argentina, which extend to 55� S, also have predominantly temperate conditions,

Heinrich Julius

A gifted scholar, theologian,

Argentina, Plant and animal life

Argentina's fauna and flora vary widely from the country's mountainous zones to its dry and humid plains and its subpolar regions. In heavily settled regions the makeup of animal and plant life has been profoundly modified.

Ashrama

Also spelled �Asrama, �Sanskrit �Asrama, � in Hinduism, any of the four spiritual abodes, or stages of life, through which the �twice-born� Hindu ideally will pass. The stages are those of (1) the student (brahmacari), marked by chastity, devotion and obedience to one's teacher; (2) the householder (grihastha), requiring marriage, the begetting of sons, working to sustain one's family and to help support priests and holy men,

Argentina, The Northwest

Vegetation in the Northwest region includes that of the high puna desert, the forested slopes of the Andes, and the subtropical scrub forests of the Pampean Sierras, the latter merging with the deciduous scrub woodlands of the Gran Chaco. Vegetation on the mostly exposed soil of the puna consists of dwarf shrubs and tough grasses, notably bunchgrass; these and other

Hale, Nathan

A graduate of Yale University (1773) and a schoolteacher, Hale joined a Connecticut regiment in 1775, served in the siege of Boston, and was commissioned a captain (1776). He went to New York with William Heath's brigade and is said to have participated in

Periodic Law, Elucidation of the periodic law

Detailed understanding of the periodic system has developed along with the quantum theory of spectra and the electronic structure of atoms, beginning with the work of Bohr in 1913. Important forward steps were the formulation of the general rules of the old quantum theory by William Wilson and Arnold Sommerfeld in 1916, the discovery of the exclusion principle by Wolfgang

Argentina, The Gran Chaco

The western Gran Chaco has growths of thorn forest dominated by algaroba (carob trees) in the drier and often saline zones. Quebracho trees (a source of tannin) are present, but not to the extent that they are farther east. No plants survive in areas with finer salt at the surface. Coarse bunchgrasses are common in the dry steppe, which also supports dense scrub forests

Nigeria

A republic and suspended member of the Commonwealth, Nigeria is located in West Africa, on the Gulf of Guinea. Area: 923,768 sq km (356,669 sq mi). Pop. (1996 est.): 103,912,000. Cap.: Abuja. Monetary unit: naira, with (Oct. 11, 1996) an official par value of 22 naira to U.S. $1 (free rate of 34.66 naira = �1 sterling); a truer value of the naira was on the free market, where 79.70 naira = U.S. $1 (125.55 naira = � 1 sterling). Chairman of the Provisional Ruling Council in 1996, Gen. Sani

Argentina, Mesopotamia

Thin stands of tall wax palms occupy the flood zones of Mesopotamia. Groups of trees and grassy areas form a park landscape of noted beauty. Common trees are the quebracho, exploited for its tannin since colonial times, the urunday, and the guayac�n, used for tannin and lumber. Gallery forests growing along rivers become denser and taller in Misiones province.

Argentina, The Pampas

The principal Pampas vegetation is monte forest in the Dry Pampa and grassland in the Humid Pampa. The boundary between the Dry and Humid Pampas lies approximately along longitude 64� W. Knee-high grasses are found in the most humid areas, whereas to the north, west, and south, where precipitation decreases, tougher grasses give way to the monte of the Dry Pampa. Planted

China, The dynastic succession

The Ming dynasty, which encompassed the reigns of 16 emperors, proved to be one of the stablest and longest dynasties of Chinese history. Rulers of Korea, Mongolia, East Turkistan, Burma, Siam, and Nam Viet regularly acknowledged Ming overlordship, and at times tribute was received from as far away as Japan, Java and Sumatra, Ceylon and South India, the East African coast,

Argentina, Patagonia and Tierra del Fuego

Patagonia contains zones of deciduous Andean forests and, east of the Andes, of steppe and desert. The largest area - the steppe region - lies in northern Patagonia between the Colorado River and the port city of Comodoro Rivadavia. This zone represents an extension southward of the monte, which gives way gradually to a xerophytic shrub region without trees except

Rurik Dynasty

Rurik's successor Oleg (d. 912) conquered Kiev (c. 882) and established control of the trade route extending from

Argentina, Settlement patterns

The varied topography, climate, and natural resources of Argentina shaped the pattern of European settlement. Although modern transportation and industry have partly effaced regional differences, the organization of life in both city and country still follows patterns that were set in early colonial times.

Intelligence

Military intelligence is as old as warfare itself. Even in biblical times, Moses sent spies to live with the Canaanites in order to learn about their ways and about their strengths and weaknesses. In the American Revolution George

Smith, Robert

Smith, brother of Samuel Smith, the military hero, grew up in Baltimore. He graduated in 1781 from the College of New Jersey (now Princeton University), studied law, and became a prominent and prosperous Baltimore attorney. From 1793 to 1801 Smith was active in Maryland politics,

Argentina, The Northwest

Numerous archaeological sites in the region indicate the presence - before the Spanish invasion - of permanently settled Indians who practiced irrigation and terraced farming in the oasis-like valleys. The Spanish, arriving overland from what are now Peru and Bolivia, initially occupied areas on the lowland plains of the Chaco, distant from hostile indigenous

Curtea De Arges

Town, Arges judet (county), south central Romania. It is on the Arges River, at an elevation of 1,480 ft (450 m), on the southern slopes of the Transylvanian Alps (Southern Carpathians), about 80 mi (130 km) northwest of Bucharest. Curtea de Arges succeeded C�mpulung as capital of feudal Walachia. Outstanding architectural monuments include the St. Nicholas church, one of the oldest churches in

Argentina, The Gran Chaco

The harsh physical conditions of the Gran

Argentina, Mesopotamia

The northern part of the Mesopotamian region was first settled by Spaniards from Asunci�n, who in 1588 founded the city of Corrientes near the confluence of the Alto Paran� and Paraguay rivers. In the south settlers from Santa Fe crossed the Paran� River and established what became the city of Paran�. Having founded towns along navigable rivers, the Spanish secured

Cola Dynasty

The legendary king Karikalan was the common ancestor through whom small Deccan and Andhra families called Cola or Coda claimed a connection with the Uraiyur

Togo

The political crisis arising out of Pres. Gnassingb� Eyad�ma's disputed victory in the 1998 presidential elections deepened during 1999. Major opposition parties and their supporters boycotted the parliamentary elections on March 21. As a result, 79 of the 81 seats went to the ruling Rally of the Togolese People, with many candidates running unopposed. On May 21 Eyadema chose Eugene

Argentina, The Pampas

The Pampas region was originally inhabited by Indians such as the Querand�, who reportedly did not practice agriculture but were fishers and hunters who used bolas for entangling fleet-footed guanacos and rheas. Fierce attacks by the Querand� forced Spanish settlers in Buenos Aires to flee upriver to Asunci�n in 1541. After Buenos Aires reemerged in 1580, the Spanish showed

Turina, Joaqu�

After studying in Sevilla (Seville) and Madrid, Turina went in 1905 to Paris, where he was a pupil of Moritz Moszkowski for piano and Vincent d'Indy for composition. Though he absorbed elements of the French style, he was inspired in Paris by Isaac

Argentina, Patagonia

Most approaches to Patagonia from the sea were hampered by inhospitable coastal cliffs and by high tides. With the Pampas Indians acting as a buffer against Europeans to the north, the Patagonian Indians thus remained unmolested until the mid-19th century, when European settlements encroached and warfare erupted. The Indian wars in northern Patagonia and the southern

Theatre, Western, Commedia dell'arte

Around the mid-16th century, there emerged in Italy a lively tradition of popular theatre that fused many disparate elements into a vigorous style, which profoundly influenced the development of European theatre. This was the legendary commedia dell'arte (�theatre of the professionals�), a nonliterary tradition that centred on the actor, as distinguished from the

Argentina, Patagonia

Argentina's economy, which is one of the more powerful in the region, has been dominated by manufacturing and agriculture since the 19th century, but its service sector has grown increasingly important. Argentina produces more grain and raises more cattle than any nation in Latin America except Brazil, and its receipts from tourism are second in the region only to

Argentina, Resources

Argentine industry is well served by the country's abundance of energy resources. By the late 20th century the country was self-sufficient in fossil fuels and hydroelectric generation, and it had become a petroleum exporter. Oil deposits are scattered throughout the country. The basin around the Patagonian port of Comodoro Rivadavia is estimated to hold some two-thirds

Pyrobitumen

Pyrobitumens may be either asphaltic or nonasphaltic. The asphaltic pyrobitumens are derived from petroleum, are relatively hard, and have

Rammed Earth

Building material made by compacting certain soils, used by many civilizations. The most durable of the earth-building forms, rammed earth may be used for making building blocks or for constructing whole walls in place, layer by layer. In making building blocks, the soil is rammed into a box-shaped mold. In building up whole walls, two wooden planks separated by a spacer

Argentina, Agriculture

Argentina is one of the world's major exporters of soybeans and wheat, as well as meat. It is also one of the largest producers of wool and wine, but most of its wine is consumed domestically. Although agriculture is an important source of export earnings, it now accounts for a small percentage of the overall GDP, and it employs only a tiny portion of the nation's

Culture

The existence and use of culture depends upon an ability possessed by humans alone. This ability has

Argentina, Industry

Manufacturing, which accounts for one-fifth of the GDP and nearly one-sixth of the workforce, is the mainstay of the Argentine economy.

Argentina, Transportation

During the Spanish colonial period there were three principal overland transportation routes. The most important led from Buenos Aires to the wealthy mining centre in Upper Peru (now Bolivia) via the northwestern route through C�rdoba, Santiago del Estero, San Miguel de Tucum�n, and San Salvador de Jujuy. A second route linked Buenos Aires with Chile westward through

Tierra Blanca

City, southern Veracruz state, south central Mexico, in the Gulf of Mexico lowland, in the R�o Papaloapan Valley, near the border of Oaxaca state, at an elevation of 200 ft (60 m) above sea level. Its climate is hot and humid. Tierra Blanca plays an important role in regional agriculture, industry, and transportation. The area is noted principally for its livestock and petroleum,

Argentina, Government

Argentina is a federal union of 23 provincias and a federal capital district, the city of Buenos Aires. Federalism came to Argentina only after a long struggle between proponents of a central government and supporters of provincial interests. The constitution of 1853 was modeled on that of the United States. The constitution promulgated in 1994 provided for consecutive

Asia

The world's largest and most diverse continent. It occupies the eastern four-fifths of the giant Eurasian landmass. Asia is more a geographic term than a homogeneous continent, and the use of the term to describe this vast area always carries the potential of obscuring the enormous diversity among the the regions it encompasses. Asia has both the highest and the lowest

Ilinsky, Igor (vladimirovich)

Although Ilinsky debuted at the Novy Theatre in William Shakespeare's The Merry Wives of Windsor, it was not until he became associated with the experimental productions of Vsevolod Yemilyevich

Argentina, Education

Argentina has one of the more educated populations in Latin America, which is reflected in its large number of schools and high literacy rate. Primary education is compulsory and free; secondary and higher education is offered in free public schools and in private schools subsidized by the state. Higher education in Argentina was seriously hampered by the censorship

Graybird

Any of numerous cuckoo-shrikes of the genus Coracina. See cuckoo-shrike.

Argentina, Health and welfare

An extensive system of hospitals and clinics in Argentina is run by national, provincial, and local authorities as well as by private organizations. The cost of medical care is covered by a comprehensive array of occupational insurance plans. Public health and sanitation standards are particularly high in developed areas but can drop off considerably in some